Justinian: Emperor, Soldier, Saint
by Peter Sarris
Justinian came from humble origins, but he had sketched out plans for his massive achievements for the Eastern Roman Empire — reconquering much of the Western Roman Empire, instituting a new law code, and promoting orthodox Christianity — even before he became emperor.
Most notably, to me, is that he wrote the pope to coordinate on religious reform while he was still technically not much more than a glorified bodyguard for his adoptive father, Justin. For Justinian, the doctrinal controversies of the time (specifically, those addressed at the Council of Chalcedon over Nestorianism and monophysitism) were not incidental but central to the administration of the empire.
Such a focus on doctrine as part of governance seems foreign by the standards of today’s leaders, to say the least. For Justinian, the threat of Arianism and Nestorianism was apparently as or more pressing than the threats posed by Goths or Persians.
I wish it were possible to know more about Justinian’s motivations. Unfortunately, it seems that the contemporary sources available are sufficient to recreate his deeds and public statements, but not enough to provide a clear sense of his personality and interior thoughts. From what is relayed in this book, there are several contradictions.
One is that Justinian carried out draconian punishments of heretics and corrupt churchmen. At the same time, though, he showed compassion in his legislation for those less fortunate. He was an aggressive, bold, and ruthless military commander, and yet also an exacting economic administrator involved in the weedy details of taxes and regulations.
Most mysterious is that, even though he promulgated harsh restrictions on licentiousness, he married a woman, Theodora, who was at best a dissolute actress and at worst a notorious prostitute. Yet, they ruled as observant (or militant) Christians together, and after she died, Sarris says, Justinian probably remained celibate the rest of his life.
To me, it is difficult to tie those strands together into a coherent narrative of a person. No other historical or current figure comes to mind as an analogue in terms of personality or ambitions.
One possibility that suggests itself is that Justinian was legitimately a kind of zealot. That was the interpretation of Edward Gibbon, who wrote that Justinian “ was regulated not by the prudence of a philosopher, but the superstition of a monk.”
Here were some other aspects of this book and Justinian’s life I found interesting.
RELIGION
In 529, Justinian passed a law making it illegal to be a pagan, which Sarris says is the “most extreme anti-pagan legislation that any Christian emperor had ever passed.”
He also cracked down on homosexuality to an extent that the contemporary historian Procopius viewed as unnecessarily cruel. Later in the book, though, Sarris notes that the only individuals known by name to have been condemned for homosexuality under Justinian were bishops, raising the possibility that the law was used strategically against churchmen who presented obstacles to Justinian’s agenda.
In general, Justinian demonstrated some flexibility in moral legislation. He never tried to legislate against usury, Sarris notes, in light of the empire’s financing needs. The only professional groups he targeted on moral grounds were pimps and eunuch dealers. He also allowed barbarian troops posted in Constantinople to maintain Arian churches — right up until it appeared that he would no longer need their services.
In general, he did not hesitate to use the force of law in service of the goal of an Orthodox Republic, and that he saw harsh and intolerant means as justified in pursuit of that end. Still, he appeared sincere in his aims. While Justinian was “responsible for many laws which persecuted religious and moral nonconformity, he also issued laws which improved the lot of vulnerable women, slaves, orphans, and the destitute. Justinian cared deeply about the lives of his subjects and the salvation of their souls, even if he was not too concerned about the manner in which he ensured that salvation.”
I do wish this book had included a bit more detail on the Christological controversies at the time and why Justinian was so personally invested in them.
One additional historical note of interest: Sarris writes that the Romans tolerated Jewish refusal to venerate pagan gods because it was a sign of filial piety and tradition, which were esteemed in Roman times. Christian thought, on the other hand, was new and evangelizing. Thus it was persecuted under Diocletian, before becoming favored by Constantine and made official by Theodosius.
Administration
Justinian prohibited the purchase of governorships and made governors swear by God and the holy archangels Michael and Gabriel to attend “vigilantly to the tax revenues.” He assured subjects that rates wouldn’t have to go up if administration improved (excessively high tax rates had contributed to the unrest that led to the Nika Riots that almost dethroned him and burned half the city).
It appears that the administrative reforms were motivated primarily by the perceived pressure from the superpower rivalry of Persia, given that the Sasanian Shah engaged in simultaneous parallel reforms.
He also imposed reforms on frontier provinces to prevent abuses. In Egypt, he prevented abuse of tax exemptions by making governors, tax collectors, pagarchs, and their heirs personally liable for uncollected taxes.
Overall, the tax and administrative reforms are suggestive of the idea that military conflict spurs reforms in governance. Earlier in the book, Sarris notes that Diocletian was prompted by a crisis of military threats to enact civil reforms, including the creation of the tetrarchy with regions known as dicoeses and prefectures and the implementation of regular tax assessment and collection.
The Shah of Persia dominated the silk industry and charged exorbitant rates to Romans. To compete, Justinian sought to establish his own state monopolies, including in silk. He took the economic gun out of the Persians’ hands by having his agents successfully steal the trade secrets for silk production and smuggling in silkworm eggs.
Other notes:
— Justinian in 533 ordered the retaking of Carthage from the Arian Vandals. Defeated Vandal king Gelimer was brought back to Constantinople, paraded, and made to perform obeisance to Justinian. Procopius wrote that he said the quote, “vanity of vanities, all is vanity.”
— Sarris says it is highly likely that the bubonic plague in 542 was attributable to disruptions to the foraging patterns of rodents caused by climate disruptions. A Little Ice Age set in around the year 536, possibly caused by volcanoes blocking out sunlight.
Joseph Lawler 